Introduction

Fig.1. The screenshot from my computer done on April 10th, 2024.

«Jesus went through all the towns and villages, teaching in their synagogues» Mt 9:35

Fig.2. The stone table from the excavated synagogue in Magdala (Fig.5.4C)(Birthplace of Mary Magdalene). The adjacent coins are 2 sides of prutah minted by Herod Antipas (for ditales Fig.9)

Chapter 1: Palestine - The Fifth Gospel

The land of Palestine (Fig.5), as depicted in biblical narratives, is a rich source of historical and archaeological significance, continually affirming the accuracy of the Gospels—Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John. It’s remarkable how this region, which still echoes its ancient past, functions as a living testament—akin to a "fifth Gospel"—offering tangible, empirical evidence that complements the traditional scriptural accounts of the life and times of Jesus Christ and his contemporaries.

Fig.3. Bargil Pixner (1921-2002) – Monk and archaeologist who lived in Galilee for many years. An expert on the Gospel of Mark, which he knew by heart in the original Greek. His ideas contributed to the creation of this book, especially in chapters 1 and 5.

Recent archaeological discoveries have uncovered remarkable artifacts spanning various historical periods, shedding light on the geographical and cultural settings of the biblical stories. The map of Palestine during Jesus's time, enhanced by these findings, not only provides context for the events in the Gospels but also serves as a powerful witness to their historical credibility. Sites like the Bay of Parables on the Sea of Galilee and the ecosystems surrounding the Seven Springs of Tabgha (Fig.6.4B) continue to attract pilgrims and scholars, all seeking to better understand the environment in which Jesus conducted his ministry (Pixner, 1992).

Some cities remain bustling under their ancient names—Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Bethany (Fig.6. 3E), Nazareth, Magdala (Fig.6. 4C)—while others, nearly lost to time, have been rediscovered through archaeological efforts. Places like Chorazin and Bethsaida (Fig.5. 5B) offer a glimpse into first-century life, corroborating Gospel accounts and expanding our knowledge of ancient Judean society. Additionally, the evolving names of places, such as biblical Arimathea becoming modern-day Ramah (Fig.6. 3E), reflect the dynamic, living history of this land.

«Again Jesus began to teach by the lake. The crowd that gathered around him was so large that he got into a boat and sat in it out on the lake, while all the people were along the shore at the water’s edge. And He was teaching them many things in parables» Mk 4:1-2

Fig.4. Bay of Parables at Sea of Galilee (Fig.5. 4B)

Amid this wealth of knowledge, the main objective is clear: to present archaeological evidence that reinforces the Gospels as historical documents. Take, for example, the natural amphitheater at the Bay of Parables. Its unique acoustic properties might have enabled Jesus, seated in a boat, to project his voice to the multitudes on the shore. This physical feature of the landscape offers a plausible explanation for the Gospel narratives, showing how geography and tradition are intertwined.

«Passing alongside the Sea of Galilee, he saw Simon and Andrew the brother of Simon casting a net into the sea, for they were fishermen (...) When he had gone a little farther, he saw James son of Zebedee and his brother John in a boat, preparing their nets»

Mk 1:16, 1:19

Similarly, the Seven Springs, which introduce sun-warmed water into the Sea of Galilee, create ideal conditions for the warm-water tilapia species from Africa. This explains the fishing practices in the Sea of Galilee, possibly reflecting the livelihoods of some of Jesus' disciples. In early spring, when the cold waters of the Sea of Galilee mix with the warmer waters from the Seven Springs, large schools of tilapia would gather here, attracting fishermen. This blend of natural sciences and archaeology with biblical text enriches our understanding of these ancient stories (Pixner, 1992). Jesus, walking from Nazareth to Capernaum in spring, would have known where to find the fishermen—Peter, Andrew, Zebedee, and his sons, James and John.

In 1986, a fishing boat from the Sea of Galilee, dating to the 1st century BCE/1st century CE, was discovered when water levels were unusually low. Two brothers, Moshe and Yuval Lufan, made the discovery. Boats like this were likely used by Peter, Andrew, and Zebedee, along with his sons, James and John.

Fig.5. A fishing boat recovered from the Sea of Galilee, dating to the turn of the eras. Length 8.2 m and width 2.3 m. Yigal Allon Centre in Ginosar, Israel

1.1 The Map of Palestine in Time of Jesus

Fig.6. The map of Palestine. Red dots mark the places mentioned in the Gospels

1.2 Archaeology of Forgotten Cities Mentioned in Gospels

«Jesus said:“-Woe to you, Chorazin! Woe to you, Bethsaida! For if the mighty works done in you had been done in Tyre and Sidon, they would have repented long ago, sitting in sackcloth and ashes"» Lk 10:12-13

The geography of Palestine, rich in history and culture, has long captivated both scholars and the faithful for its profound biblical associations. Recent archaeological excavations have cast new light on cities mentioned in the Gospels, reviving forgotten stories. Among these, Chorazin, Bethsaida, and Machaerus stand out for their historical and religious importance. Tyre and Sidon are on fig.6. 3A and 4A, respectively. 

Chorazin, or Korazim (Fig.6. 5B), serves as a striking reminder of a village known from the Christian Gospels, located on the Korazim Plateau in Upper Galilee. This ancient settlement, which flourished during the Roman and Byzantine periods, revealed various remnants of daily life—houses, alleys, ritual baths (Miqvas), and olive presses—through excavations conducted in the 1980s. Most notably, a synagogue dating back to the 4th century was uncovered in 2020, constructed atop an earlier synagogue from Jesus's era. The discovery of the "seat of Moses" within its walls has deepened our understanding of this biblical site (Fig.14) (Yeivin, Z. 1987).

Fig.7. Excavated synagogue in Chorazin, north Galilee

Bethsaida (Fig.6. 5B), traditionally recognized as the hometown of Peter, his brother Andrew, and Philip, has intrigued archaeologists for many years. Situated near the confluence of the Jordan River and the Sea of Galilee, Bethsaida’s name means “the house of fishermen.” Excavations at two major sites, Et-Tell and El-Aray, have yielded significant discoveries, including the floor of a church believed to have been constructed over the house of Peter and Andrew. These findings provide substantial support to the historical accounts described in the Gospels, offering a direct connection to the lives of Jesus’s closest disciples (Notley, 2022).

«The king (Herod the tetrarch) was distressed, but because of his oaths and his dinner guests, he ordered that Herodias daughter's request be granted and had John the Baptist beheaded in the prison» Mt 14:9-10

Although not explicitly mentioned in the Gospels, Machaerus (Fig.6. 5F) plays a critical role in the story of John the Baptist. This towering hilltop fortress, according to Josephus' Antiquities, was where John the Baptist was imprisoned and later executed under the orders of Herod Antipas. Archaeologists have uncovered the remains of the palace and fortress, offering insight into the political and social climate of the time. These discoveries provide a valuable context for biblical narratives, shedding light on the historical setting that influenced early Christianity (Voros, 2013).

Fig.8. Excavated Fortress of Machaerus

The figures mentioned in this Gospel account—Herod Antipas and Herodias's daughter—have been historically verified (Kennedy, 2022).

Interestingly, the title of Herod Antipas used in the Gospels, "Herod the Tetrarch" (Mt 14:1; Lk 3:19 & 9:7), matches the inscriptions found on his coinage (Fig.9). A similar pattern is observed with coins from Herod the Great (Fig.20).

Josephus’s Antiquities also reveals that the name of Herodias’s daughter was Salome. She later married Aristobulus V, and her image and name appear on the reverse of his coins (Fig.10)

Fig.9. A Coin of Herod Antipas. Obverse: TIBERIAS and the laurel wreath; Reverse: HEROD THE TETRARCH and a palm leaf.

Fig.10. Obverse: King Aristobulus V; Reverse: Queen Salome, his wife.

Chapter 2: Old Testament Sites Mentioned by Jesus

During his time on earth, Jesus Christ frequently referred to the Hebrew Scriptures, now known as the Old Testament. These scriptural references not only gave his teachings historical and spiritual authority but also reflected his profound understanding of these sacred texts. Among the geographical locations Jesus mentioned, the notorious cities of Sodom and Gomorrah stand out. These cities, long considered symbols of divine judgment, take on new significance today, as contemporary archaeological research near the Dead Sea suggests that they may have been real historical sites.

In addition to these places, Jesus also referenced the prophet Isaiah, whose writings played a key role in his teachings. Remarkably, recent archaeological discoveries in the City of David (Il.26. 5-6 C) have uncovered what is believed to be the seal of Isaiah himself. This artifact, dating back 700 years before Jesus's time, lends historical support to the existence of the prophet and further validates the scriptural narratives that Jesus frequently used in his ministry.

Fig.11. The Isaiah Scroll from Qumran, from 100 BC (Israel Museum in Jerusalem)

2.1 Discovering Sodom and Gomorrah

«“It was the same in the days of Lot. People were eating and drinking, buying and selling, planting and building. But the day Lot left Sodom, fire and sulfur rained down from heaven and destroyed them all"» Lk 17:28-29

Historical and scriptural stories come together in the desolate area of the Dead Sea Plain (Fig.6. 4-5 EFG), where scientists have been studying evidence of an ancient disaster. This research started in 1924 with William Albright and Melvin Kyle, who found burnt rock that looked like it had been exposed to very high heat (Kyle & Albright, 1924).

Researchers were particularly interested in how limestone reacted to extreme temperatures. At around 2000°C, carbon dioxide is released, leaving behind calcium oxide, a white substance. Additionally, molten sulphur may have helped form gypsum (CaSO4), a byproduct of limestone. These findings, along with discoveries of melted pottery, metals, and minerals (platinum, iridium, nickel or zircon) and even micro-diamonds, suggest temperatures as high as 3000°C (Bunch, 2021; Collins, 2016).

Fig.12. Sodom Desert near Dead Sea today

Another strange finding in this area is a type of sulphur that is not  found on any other place on Earth: pure white, spherical, and easily ignited, burning with a blue flame. With 98% purity, these sulphur balls suggest a massive fiery event in the region (Kramer, 2015).

Many scientists now believe that a meteorite impact could have caused this event, possibly raining burning sulphur down on the Dead Sea Plain around 3600-4000 years ago. This closely matches the biblical story of the destruction of Sodom, Gomorrah, and other nearby cities, where only Zoar survived (Gen19:22-26). The cities and cemeteries burned at the same time and were never rebuilt, leaving the land barren to this day (Kramer, 2015).

The origin of this pure sulphur could be traced back to stars, where nuclear reactions form sulphur atoms (where silicon atoms capture helium). After supernova explosions, meteorites containing these elements travel through space. The high pressure from meteorite impacts can turn yellow sulphur crystals into the white powder found in the Dead Sea region. A large meteor explosion in Earth’s atmosphere could explain the sulphur rain and extreme heat (Collins, 2016).

2.2 The Isaiah Stamp: A Seal from the Past

«He went to Nazareth (...) and on the Sabbath day, he went into the synagogue, as was his custom. He stood up to read, and the scroll of the prophet Isaiah was handed to him. Unrolling it, he found the place where it is written: “The Spirit of the Lord is on me because he has anointed me to proclaim good news to the poor(...)". Then he rolled up the scroll, gave it back to the attendant and sat down» Lk 4:16-18

Amid the layered remains of Jerusalem’s ancient history, a clay seal impression has emerged, reinforcing the historical accuracy of biblical accounts. In 2018, archaeologist Eilat Mazar and her team uncovered a significant find. Among the debris of Iron Age Jerusalem, dating back to the 8th–7th centuries B.C., they discovered a small bulla believed to belong to the prophet Isaiah. This artifact was found near another bulla inscribed “Belonging to King Hezekiah of Judah,” which had been uncovered in 2015. Together, these seals offer valuable insights into the royal and religious dynamics of ancient Judah (Mazar et al., 2015; Mazar, 2018).

Biblical texts recount that the prophet Isaiah was not only a prominent figure during Hezekiah's reign but was also connected to the king by family, as his daughter Hephzibah is said to have married Hezekiah. Additionally, the Book of Isaiah, one of the most detailed and well-preserved texts in the Old Testament, contains prophecies about the life and sacrifice of Jesus Christ, further emphasising the importance of this archaeological find in supporting gospel narratives (see Fig. 11).

Fig.13. The Isaiah seal, approximately 2700 years old

Public teaching in synagogues was typically delivered from a chair known as "Moses’ Seat." Recent excavations have uncovered such a seat in the Roman-era synagogue at Chorazin, indicating that Jesus likely taught from this place during his ministry.

Fig.14. Moses' Seat excavated from the synagogue in Chorazin

Chapter 3 The Dating of Jesus' Birth, Death, and Ministry

«In those days Caesar Augustus issued a decree that a census should be taken of the entire Roman world. (This was the first census that took place while Quirinius was governor of Syria.)» Lk2:1-2

In 2 BC, the Roman Empire was in the midst of celebrations marking the 750th anniversary of Rome and the silver jubilee of Caesar Augustus (25th anniversary since 27BC). It was a time of grandeur, as Augustus had become the "Father of the Country," and an extraordinary census was held—different from the routine tax censuses conducted in 28 BC, 8 BC, and later in 14 AD (Nollet, 2012). This census focused on population registration (Lk 2:3), and the Empire, with a population exceeding 4 million, was partaking in a momentous event (Kennedy, 2022).

Historical accounts, such as those by Tertullian, precisely date the birth of Jesus Christ. Tertullian points to two key calculations: the 41st year of Augustus's rule (initially in a political triumvirate from 43 BC and as emperor from 27 BC), which indicates 2 BC, and 28 years after Cleopatra's death in 30 BC, which also points to 2 BC (Tertullian, 1935).

«Now after Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea in the days of King Herod, magi from the East arrived, saying: - “Where is the newborn king of the Jews? We saw his star at its rising and have come to do him homage”» Mt 2:1-2

Adding to this, on August 26, 2 BC, a rare conjunction of Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, and Venus occurred in the constellation of Leo (Molnar, 1993). This phenomenon, known as the heliacal rising, which is visible just before dawn, can be reconstructed today using software like STELLARIUM. It may have been the celestial sign that guided the magi to Jesus. The correct translation of their words is: “We saw his star at its rising” (Mt 2:2), rather than "in the East."

Fig. 15. Heliacal Rising of Four Planets on August 26, 2 BC/-1

The magi were reportedly "overjoyed" when they saw the star as they neared Jesus (Mt 2:10). The final stretch of their journey from Jerusalem to Bethlehem (Fig.6. 3E) led eastward, making it possible that the heliacal rising of the planets pointed them to Jesus. This theory supports the idea that Herod the Great's death occurred in 1 BC. According to Josephus, Herod died before Passover, and a lunar eclipse preceded his death, likely the eclipse on January 9th, 1 BC (Gertoux, 2015).

These planetary conjunctions, occurring three times around the time of Jesus' birth, may have guided the magi to Jerusalem. The first conjunction, involving Mercury, Venus, and Jupiter, near the bright star Regulus, occurred on August 27, 3 BC/-2.

Fig.16. Helical rising of 3 planets near a star Regulus on August 27th, 3BC/-2. 

Fig. 17. The Third Conjunction of Four Planets – the Most Spectacular – Occurred on November 5, 1 AD

When one reads carefully the passage from the Gospel of Matthew (Mt. 2:1-12) describing the arrival of the Magoi (in Greek) – wise Persian priests – in Jerusalem and studies the images of planetary conjunctions in figures 15, 16, and 17, one gets the impression that it was precisely for this most spectacular 'meeting' of 4 planets in 1 point that the Magi came to Bethlehem (Fig.17). When they arrive in Jerusalem a few days earlier, they are convinced that the Jewish king has already been born because they saw his star 'at its rising' earlier (they probably referred to the date 26.08.-1). This is why Herod the Great, after asking about the date, orders the killing of two-year-old children in Bethlehem after the Magi depart for their homeland, bypassing Jerusalem.

It is also intriguing that the Magi asked Herod the Great’s court about the prophesied birthplace of the Jewish messiah. The scribes mention the name Bethlehem. Another interesting observation is that Herod the Great had three towers in the northern part of his palace (Fig. 26, 5B), from which he could observe the sky, but he saw no star. The answer to this is the assumption that only specialized Magi with great astronomical knowledge knew that the planetary conjunction this time could be observed from the earth only before dawn. They also knew that conjunctions repeat, sometimes twice, but most often three times. This is why they were so overjoyed early in the morning of 5/11/1 when they saw the bright "star" made of 4 planets in one spot (Fig. 17). For several days already, every morning, the planets were closer to each other 'at their rising,' and then they showed the way when the final stretch of the journey from Jerusalem to Bethlehem led eastward. Using STELLARIUM, we can clearly observe that Venus and Mercury were in retrograde motion loops (an apparent movement caused by the combined motion of Earth and each planet). This phenomenon could have given the impression that the star had stopped. As described in Matthew:

«The star they had seen at its rising went ahead of them until it stopped above the place where the child was» Mt 2:9 (CSB)

However, this hypothesis has several very serious weaknesses: why would the Holy Family have stayed in Bethlehem for two years? And the most important question concerns the date of Herod the Great’s death. Could Herod have transferred power to his children before his death when he was very ill? According to the Gospel of Matthew, when Herod the Great died, the Holy Family returned from Egypt to Palestine. Could the date of Herod the Great’s death have been in the year 2 AD?"

Returning to our analysis of Luke 2:1-2: Quirinius's role during this time also deserves reevaluation. Recent archaeological findings suggest that the “census of Quirinius” in Syria (Fig.25 3-4A) was part of Augustus’s broader "Inventory of the World," which is crucial for aligning biblical accounts with historical records (Gertoux, 2015). Quirinius (c. 51 BC–AD 21) was an aristocrat of the Roman Empire, extremely wealthy, and held numerous positions: he was, among other things, a senator, consul, and legate - a governor under Caesar Augustus. Some historians demonstrate that Quirinius was a governor of Cesar August in Syria twice: 3-2BC and 6-11AD (Gertoux, 2015).

Fig.18B Fragment of the funerary inscription of Quintus, who, under the command of Caesar Augustus's Legate in Syria, Quirinius, conducted a census in the city of Apamea in Syria. National Archaeological Museum in Venice.

«In the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar—when Pontius Pilate was governor of Judea, Herod (Antipas) tetrarch of Galilee, his brother Philip tetrarch of Iturea and Trachonitis, and Lysanias tetrarch of Abilene— during the high-priesthood of Annas and Caiaphas Lk 3:1-2

Jesus' ministry began around the 15th year of Tiberius Caesar’s reign ( that started in 14 AD), placing it around 28/29 AD. This was a pivotal time, marked by the emergence of John the Baptist and Jesus' baptism in the Jordan River.

«They replied, “It has taken forty-six years to build this temple" Jn 2:20

Further evidence aligns this timeframe with John’s Gospel, which references a 46-year period to build the temple that Herod began in 19 BC, placing the conversation in 28 AD. Thus, if Jesus was born in 2 BC (effectively -1 AD, assuming 1 BC as year 0, fig.19), he began his ministry around the age of 30, as noted in the Scripture (Lk 3:23). Where: ἀρχόμενος ὡσεὶ ἐτῶν τριάκοντα  can be translated: "beginning of the thirtieth year of life" (Google Translate).

Fig. 19. The Gregorian Calendar Lacks a Year 0; STELLARIUM Accounts for This Issue

This exploration of the dates surrounding Jesus’ birth and ministry leads us to the date of the crucifixion.

According to Luke 23:44-45, on the day of Jesus' crucifixion, there was a darkening of the sun (ἡλίου ἐκλιπόντος, hēliou eklipontos). However, since the moon was full during Passover, an astronomical solar eclipse was impossible. The longest recorded solar eclipse lasts only about eight minutes. The three-hour darkness that covered Jerusalem was more likely due to thick, sand-laden clouds hung over the Temple’s summit and the city.

On that same day, a partially eclipsed moon rose over Jerusalem at around 6:20 PM and remained eclipsed until 6:50 PM. It was Friday, 14 Nisan, or April 3, 33 AD (Gertoux, 2015). If these calculations are accurate, Jesus died at the age of 34.

The people mentioned in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew are historical figures whose likenesses appear on coins they minted. The coin of Herod Antipas is on fig.9. Herod the Great's coin on fig. 20

Fig.20. A coin of Herod the Great. Obverse: KING HEROD (exactly like in Gospel of Matthew 2:1) 

Fig. 21. A Coin of Philip the Tetrarch of Iturea and Trachonitis (Fig.25. 3A i 3-4B). Obverse: Face of Tiberius Caesar; Reverse: Greco-Roman Temple with Inscription: Philip the Tetrarch, 34th Year of His Reign

Fig. 22. A Coin of Pontius Pilate, Governor of Judea. Obverse: The Simpulum and TIBERIUS EMPEROR; Reverse: The Three Ears of Barley and EMPRESS JULIA, Year 29 AD

Other archaeological evidence for Pilate is presented in Chapter 7, and for Caiaphas in Chapter 9.

Fig. 23. Greek Inscription Near Ancient Abila, 30 km from Damascus: LYSANIAS THE TETRARCH

Luke also describes a tetrarch named Lysanias, who reigned over Abilene. Two inscriptions mentioning Lysanias have been discovered. One of them, dating from AD 14–37, identifies Lysanias as the tetrarch of Abila, near Damascus (Fig.25. 3-4A)(Savignac, 1912).

«But when Joseph heard that Archelaus was reigning over Judea instead of his father Herod, he was afraid to go there Mt 2:22

Herod Archelaus reigned over Judea from Herod the Great's death until 6 AD. He held the title of Ethnarch in Judea, Samaria, and Idumea,(Fig.25 2CD) including the cities of Caesarea (Fig.25. 2B) and Joppa (Fig.25 1C) (modern Tel Aviv). In 6 AD, he was exiled to Gaul (modern France). These historical facts confirm the narratives found in the Gospels.

Fig. 24. A Coin of Herod Archelaus. Obverse: Double Cornucopia and Inscription: HEROD; Reverse: A Galley Sailing Left with Inscription: ETHNARCH

Fig. 25. The Division of Herod the Great’s Kingdom Among His Four (Tetra) Children: Three Sons (Archelaus, Antipas, Philip) and Daughter Salome

Chapter 4 The Jerusalem Archaeology Revealed

In this chapter, we explore remarkable discoveries that illuminate the life and times in which the Gospels were set, offering a fresh perspective on the historical context of the New Testament. Recent excavations and scholarly research have brought to light key archaeological finds, such as the steps near the southern wall of the Jerusalem Temple, the Pools of Siloam and Bethesda, and the Gabbatha—the judgment seat of Pilate. These sites not only stand as silent witnesses to the Second Temple period but also corroborate specific locations mentioned in the Gospels.

Fig.26. The map of Jerusalem at the time of Jesus

4.1 Stairs near the Southern Wall of Jerusalem Temple

«And early in the morning he came again into the temple, and all the people came unto him; and he sat down, and taught them» Jn 8:2

In the heart of Jerusalem, an extraordinary archaeological discovery unveils a path once tread by historical figures from the New Testament, connecting the narrative of ancient scriptures with tangible evidence. The flight of steps leading up to the Southern Wall of the Temple Mount provides not just a pathway but a journey back through time. Excavated meticulously by Benjamin Mazar (1906-1995) and his team shortly after 1967, these stairs represent the northernmost stretch of the pilgrimage road that extended from the Pool of Siloam to the sacred precincts of the Temple Mount via the notable Double and Triple Gates visible on map of Jerusalem as Huldah Gates (Mazar, 1995) (Fig.26. 5D).
This archaeological marvel is more than an ancient structure; it's a silent witness to centuries of faith and tradition. Considered well-preserved, the steps leading to the Double and Triple Gates invite one to walk the same path that notable New Testament figures, including Jesus and his disciples, may have used during their visits to Jerusalem for Passover and other festivals. This connection brings to life the stories of a 12-year-old Jesus visiting the city. The reality of these steps challenges and complements the Gospel narratives, providing a physical dimension to the events recounted (Mazar, 1995).

Fig.27. Southern Wall Stairs leading to the Jerusalem Temple through the Huldah Gates (today bricked-up)

4.2 The Ponds of Healing: Siloam and Bethesda

The intricate fabric of Jerusalem's past is continuously revealed through meticulous archaeological work. In this context of discovery, the Pools of Siloam and Bethesda shine as significant religious and cultural artifacts, offering tangible connections to biblical narratives.

«Jesus said to a man born blind "Go, wash in the pool of Siloam"» Jn 9:7

The Pool of Siloam (Fig.25. 5F), historically regarded as the site where a blind man was healed after washing the mud from his eyes (John 9:1-11), was rediscovered during a serendipitous excavation. In 2004, amidst routine municipal repairs, workers stumbled upon ancient stone steps, prompting immediate archaeological investigation (Reich & Shukron, 2011). The subsequent excavation, led by Eli Shukron and Ronny Reich, revealed a large pool with dimensions suggesting it originated from the Second Temple Period (1st century BC). This pool collected water from King Hezekiah's 7th-century BC tunnel, which channeled water from the Gihon Spring (Fig.25. 5E) (Elitzur, 2008), securing a reliable water source for Jerusalem.

Fig.28. Recently excavated Pool of Siloam

The uncovering of the Pool of Siloam also led to the discovery of a stone road connecting this water reservoir with the temple steps described in Chapter 4.1. This monumental road, in the form of large steps, is 8 meters wide, stretches over 600 meters in length, and rises about 130 meters toward the Temple Mount. Today, it is known as the Pilgrimage Road (Fig.26. 4 DEF). Around 10,000 tons of stone slabs were used to build it. The oldest coin found during these excavations is a coin of Pontius Pilate, featuring the lituus symbol, minted in the years 30-31 AD (Fig. 51 and 52). Therefore, it can be assumed that Jesus, along with His disciples, walked these steps to the temple in Jerusalem. The Pool of Siloam and the Pilgrimage Road are part of the Archaeological Park of the City of David in Jerusalem.

Fig. 29 Archaeological work on the Pilgrimage Road from the Pool of Siloam to the Temple Mount

Carefully reading the above excerpts from the Gospel, one can infer that the man born blind met Jesus near the temple, and it was along this road that he was sent to the Pool of Siloam, and then returned along it to the temple – with his sight restored. Archaeological discoveries show that the distance the man born blind traveled did not exceed the limit allowed by law that a Jew could walk on the Sabbath. This distance was 2,000 cubits (Exodus 16:29 and Numbers 35:5), which is about 1,200 meters (¾ mile) = 2 x 600 meters.

«There is in Jerusalem by the Sheep Gate a pool, which is called in Hebrew Bethesda, having five porticoes» Jn 5:2

Moving to the Pool of Bethesda (Fig.6. 5A) -meaning in Hebrew Pool of Mercy - archaeological pursuits have borne fruit in substantiating its existence. Conrad Schick, in the 19th century, initiated the uncovering of this historical site located proximal to the present Lion's Gate, anciently known as the Sheep Gate. Discovery of the five roofed colonnades i.e. porticoes referenced in the scriptures became a reality following intensive excavations, providing a visual model for the gospel account (Schick, 1888). This model depicts a double pool system with the capacity for water to flow between the two cisterns through a central dam, surrounded by a 5th colonnade.

Fig.30. Five porticoes i.e. roofed colonnades in reconstruction of Pool of Bethesda. Israel Museum in Jerusalem.

Fig.31. Pool of Bethesda

Both the Pools of Siloam and Bethesda not only highlight the ingenuity of ancient water engineering but also stand as archaeological affirmations of gospel accounts. These sites continue to captivate scholars and faithful alike, furnishing a deeper understanding of the urban landscape during the time of Jesus and offering indubitable connections to the narratives that shape the beliefs of millions.

4.3 Trumpet Place Rock and Its Significance

«Jesus answered, “I tell you, Peter, before the rooster crows (alektor phōnēsei) today, you will deny three times that you know me”» Lk 22:34

Fig.32. The Trumpeting Stone

The discovery of the Trumpeting Stone beneath the southwest corner(Fig.26. 5D)  of the Jerusalem Temple (Fig.26 5BCD) has illuminated key aspects of daily life and religious practice during the Second Temple Period, offering a rich historical context that connects both Jewish and Christian traditions. Unearthed by archaeologist Benjamin Mazar in 1968, this inscribed basalt stone has added texture to our understanding of temple rituals, Jewish culture, and even the Gospel narratives. This artefact, a top stone from the temple's structure, is believed to have been cast down by Roman soldiers amid the razing of Jerusalem in 70 AD, lying dormant for nearly two millennia before its revelation to the modern world.

The stone, which reads "FOR THE PLACE OF TRUMPETING TO...," suggests that it marked the location where priests would blow the trumpet to signal significant moments, such as the opening of the temple gates and the beginning or end of the Sabbath. The audible call of the trumpet would have resonated over the city, making the temple not only a visual but also an acoustic centre of Jerusalem. This discovery offers scholars a physical piece of the temple's history, demonstrating the use of sound in marking sacred time and daily rituals.

The significance of the Trumpeting Stone extends into Christian history as well, particularly concerning the New Testament account of Peter’s denial of Jesus. A fascinating hypothesis suggests that the "cock-crowing" mentioned in the Gospels may not have referred to an actual rooster’s call but rather to this very trumpet blast. The Talmud (Baba Kama 7.72 & 82b) indicates that chickens were not allowed within the walls of Jerusalem, raising doubts about whether Peter could have heard a rooster. Some scholars propose that the "cock-crow" was a euphemism for the trumpet signalling.

Fig.33. The Jerusalem Temple Priest trumpeting at the marked corner 

Another source of the blaring sound could have been the signal of a Roman brass trumpet, marking the night watches (Fig. 34). The third night watch – 'buccina tercia' – the Roman signal of trumpeting between midnight and 3 a.m. – was called the cockcrow and alektronophes in Greek (Mark 13:35) (Fig. 34). In Greek, Alector, meaning rooster, can also signify a man. According to the Gospel of Mark (Mk 14:66-72), Peter heard both of the aforementioned trumpet sounds.

Fig.34. Roman soldier trumpeting the buccina 

Conversely, another hypothesis locates Peter’s denial and the cock’s crow outside the city walls, near the house of the High Priest Caiaphas, as indicated by a 4th-century pilgrim from Bordeaux. The Church of Saint Peter in Gallicantu, built in the 5th century on this site, is traditionally believed to mark the place where Peter heard the rooster. Beneath the church, underground chambers from the Second Temple period have been uncovered, an ancient prison. This could be where Jesus was held the first night after his arrest, bitten and tortured (Lk 22:63-64), and where Peter may have heard the rooster crow, symbolising his infamous denial.

These competing interpretations—one rooted in the Trumpeting Stone and Jewish temple rituals, the other tied to traditional Christian geography—both reflect the rich, multi-layered history of Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period.

Fig.35. The Second Temple time dungeon under: Fig.36. The Church of Saint Peter in Gallicantu, Jerusalem

4.4 Pilate's Judgement Seat near Praetorium

«Pilate brought Jesus out and sat down on the judge’s seat (Gr: bēmatos) at a place known as the Stone Pavement (which in Aramaic is Gabbatha)» Jn 19:13

This passage from Gospel of John offers a glimpse into the physical context behind one of the pivotal moments of the New Testament—the trial of Jesus before Pontius Pilate. Traditionally, it is believed that Pilate's verdict on Jesus was pronounced near the Antonia Fortress, which many pilgrims associate with the starting point of the Jerusalem Way of the Cross - Via Dolorosa. However, the newest archaeological discoveries suggest that Jesus' trial may have taken place in Herod's palace connected with Pretorium, which was located in a different part of Jerusalem.

The setting of Pilate's judgement seat, as explored by Prof. Shimon Gibson in The Final Days of Jesus: The Archaeological Evidence (2009), indeed adds remarkable depth to our comprehension of the Gospel narratives. The notion that Pilate could have delivered his infamous verdict from a place within Herod the Great's palace in Jerusalem ties Roman rule and Jewish monarchy into a symbolic juxtaposition.

The mention of the Stone Pavement, or Gabbatha in Aramaic, where Pilate sat to make his judgement (John 19:13) on bēmatos, aligns with archaeological findings of a raised stone platform near the Western City Walls of Jerusalem. The fact that this platform, marked by distinctive stonework, could be linked to the place where Jesus was tried enhances our understanding of the trial's historical accuracy.

Fig.37. The excavated remnants of Pilate's judgment seat - Gabbatha (Fig.26. 2D)

«And the soldiers led Him away into the palace, that is the Praetorium» Mk 15:16

Moreover, the identification of a gate structure near the palace, possibly connected to the Essene Gate, further situates the trial within the ancient geography of Jerusalem. The ‘AULIS’, or Palace in Greek, mentioned in Mark 15:16, connected with Pretorium (where Jesus had been scourged) refers to this palace area where Roman authority was exercised. Pilate's presence in Jerusalem during Passover, residing in what may have once been the palace of Herod (Fig.26. 3D), would have served as a striking display of Roman power during one of the holiest times of the Jewish calendar. It must be marked that Pilate, the Roman prefect overseeing Judea, administered from not one, but two, pretoria – essentially, governors' headquarters: one was located in the seaside capital of Caesarea and the second, situated in Jerusalem.

Through the archaeological lens, the narrative of Jesus' trial and subsequent crucifixion gains a new level of realism. The gabbatha and the bēmatos in the surrounding remnants of Herod's palace situate the Gospel accounts in a tangible place, offering us the opportunity to walk in the footsteps of these historical events, as moments that transpired in a real and vivid world.

Fig.38. Jesus Before Pilate, Outside Herod’s Palace by the Western City Walls of Jerusalem with the Essene Gate (today bricked-up).

Chapter 5: The Miracles Engraved in Stone

This chapter emphasizes two miracles involving the Multiplication of Loaves and Fish, which have been geographically identified through discoveries, particularly the mosaics on church floors in Tabgha and the recently uncovered burnt church mosaic in Hippos. Furthermore, two locations are acknowledged as the homes of Peter: his family residence in Bethsaida and his mother-in-law’s house in Capernaum. Both of these sites were later converted into early Christian churches.

Fig.39. The Church of Multiplication in Tabgha

5.1 Multiplication of Loaves and Fish: the Tabgha and Hippos Mosaics

«"When I broke the five loaves for the five thousand, how many baskets (kophinoy) full of broken pieces you picked up?" They said to Him : "Twelve"» Mk 8:19

The event of the multiplication of the loaves and fish, recounted in all four Gospels, is one of the most celebrated miracles attributed to Jesus. On the shores of the Sea of Galilee lies an ancient witness to this miraculous occurrence—the 4th-century Byzantine church in Tabgha (Fig.6. 4B). Today, this site remains a pivotal destination for countless pilgrims who come to gaze upon the intricate floor mosaic situated near the altar. This artwork depicts a handleless basket of loaves flanked by two fish, echoing the Gospel narration where five thousand men, apart from women and children, were fed with five loaves and two fish (Mk 6:31-44; Mt 14:13-21; Lk 9:12-17). Mark, Matthew, and Luke use the Greek word ἰχθύς (ichthys) for the fish, but in the Gospel of John (Jn 6:1-15), the fish is named ὀψάριον (opsarion), which means cooked or sun-dried and salted fish—preserved and ready to eat.

Fig.40. The floor mosaic in the Church of Multiplication. The handle less basket type KOPHINOY and 2 fish

Fig.41. AI definition of basket type Kophinos

«When I broke the seven for the four thousand, how many baskets (spyris) full of broken pieces you picked up?" And they said to Him : "Seven"» Mk 8:20

The miracle of the feeding of the four thousand, as recounted in the Gospels of Mark (8:1-9) and Matthew (15:32-39), offers a striking yet often overlooked parallel to the more widely known miracle of the feeding of the five thousand. Bargil Pixner's work, especially in With Jesus through Galilee according to the Fifth Gospel, provides key insights that bridge biblical texts with the local Galilean environment. His identification of the little fish in Greek: ἰχθύδιον (ichthydion) species as Kinneret Sardines, based on his understanding of the region's ecosystem, offers a specific contextual detail that is frequently lost in translation. Pixner's suggestion that this second miracle likely took place on the eastern coast of the Sea of Galilee aligns with recent archaeological discoveries, notably those from the Hippos site (Pixner, 1992).

The unearthing of the mosaic at Hippos (Fig.5. 5C), preserved beneath the remnants of a fire and subsequent earthquake debris from the 7th century, adds further weight to Pixner's theory. This mosaic, much like the famous Tabgha mosaic, portrays baskets filled with loaves and small fish—an artistic echo of the biblical accounts of the feeding miracles. The church where this mosaic was found is now called the “burnt” church (Eisenberg, 2018).

A key detail Pixner emphasized in his research is the difference in the Greek terms used in the Gospel narratives to describe the baskets used to collect the broken pieces. In the second miracle (the feeding of the four thousand), the term spyris (baskets with side handles) (Mk 8:8 & 8:20; Mt 15:37 & 16:10) is used, while the first miracle (the feeding of the five thousand) uses kophinos (baskets without handles) (Mk 6:43 & 8:19; Mt 14:20 & 16:9; Lk 9:17; Jn 6:13). This linguistic nuance, noted by Pixner, who knew the Gospel of Mark in Greek by heart, points to distinct details in the original Greek texts that are often overlooked in translation. The Latin translation of the Gospels, the Vulgate, retains the word "baskets" for both types. Moreover, these distinctions were carefully honored by the artisans who created the church mosaics 4-5 centuries later, preserving a tangible link between the texts and the artistic depictions of these miracles.

Fig.42. The mosaic from the burnt church excavated at Hippos. Basket with handles—type SPYRIS—and a few small fish.

Fig.43. AI definition of basket type Spyris

Fig.44. On the top of a magnificent mountain: archaeology discovering the city of Hippos

5.2 The Dwellings of Simon Peter: Insights from Capernaum and Bethsaida

        «As soon as they left the synagogue, they went with James and John to the home of Simon and Andrew. Simon’s mother-in-law was in bed (...) So He went to her (...) The fever left her and she began to wait on them» Mk 1:29-31

Tracing the miraculous accounts preserved in the Gospels, archaeological discoveries have brought to light tangible evidence relating to one of Christianity's key figures—the Apostle Peter, originally named Simon and his two houses mentioned in the Gospels and confirmed by archeology.

Fig.45. A Capernaum synagogue from the 4th century, constructed atop basalt remnants from an earlier synagogue dating to the 1st century BC.

Capernaum (Fig.6. 5B), a thriving fishing village on the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee, aligns with the biblical narrative found in Mark 1:29-34, particularly concerning the location of Capernaum synagogue and Peter's home where Jesus healed Peter's mother-in-law. Excavations in the area have uncovered structures from the first century, including a residential building believed to be Peter's house. This site has become a place of profound significance, leading to the construction of subsequent religious structures, notably a 5th-century octagonal church built over the ruins (Loffreda, 2008). Today, St. Peter's Church, featuring a transparent floor, stands above these excavations, providing pilgrims with a direct view of the early Christian remnants.

Fig.46. St. Peter's Church, constructed over the archaeological remains of Peter's house in Capernaum.

«Philip was from Bethsaida, the city of Andrew and Peter» Jn1:44

«Jesus replied, “Blessed are you, Simon son of Jonah,(...) you are Peter (which means ‘rock’), and on this rock I will build my church, and the powers of hell will not overcome it.  I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven» Mt 16:17-19

The Gospel of John extends Peter's origins to Bethsaida (Fig.6. 5B), along with his brother Andrew and the apostle Philip (John 1:44). Archaeological findings have clarified this biblical reference, revealing that under Philip the Tetrarch, Bethsaida gained prominence and was renamed Julias in honor of Caesar's daughter. However, the late 8th century brought seismic activity and flooding that erased Bethsaida from both the physical and historical records. Recent excavations at El-Araj (from Kinneret College in Israel and Nyack College in New York) have revived interest in the site, uncovering the Church of the Apostles ( named as well as Church of St. Peter) with a vibrant floor mosaic referencing Peter (Notley, 2022; Di Segni, 2023), inscribed as:

A.

B.

Fig.47. A The Greek Inscription from the Church of Apostles/ St.Peter in el-Araj and its translation B (Di Segni, 2023)

The writings of Willibald, an 8th-century Bavarian bishop, provide a historical link, documenting one of the earliest pilgrimages to these Christian sites around the Sea of Galilee. His accounts highlight the reverence early Christians had for these locations. Willibald's descriptions of the Church of the Apostles in Bethsaida underscore its significance in perpetuating the legacy of Peter and Andrew's family home (Wilken, 2002; Di Segni, 2023).

Fig.48. Greek inscription mentioning church renovation, on the floor of the Byzantine Church of the Apostles/ Church of St.Peter.

Chapter 6 Exploring the East Side of the Sea of Galilee

We already visited the eastern side of the Sea od Galilee writing about recent Hippos' archeology in chapter 5.1. Now we are moving north from Hippos (Fig.6. 5C) to Kursi (Fig.6. 5B). The three evangelists who describe Jesus's crossing with his disciples to the eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee use three different names for this region:

• 
  

  Mark 5:1: The country of the Gerasenes – the name comes from the capital of this geographical area, Gerasa, which is known today as Jerash in Jordan (Fig.6. 6D).

  
  


• 
  

  Matthew 8:28: The country of the Gadarenes – this name derives from a large city belonging to the Decapolis in Roman times, Gadara, which is today Um Qais in Jordan (Fig.6. 5C)

  
  


• 
  

  Luke 8:28: The country of the Gergesenes – this name comes from a small locality by the Sea of Galilee, Gergesa or Gergasa. It is here where people kept the herders of the swine, described in the Gospels. Today, this area is known as Kursi (Fig.6. 5B)

  
  

6.1 Archaeology of Kursi: A Glimpse into Christ's Ministry

«They went across the lake to the region of the Gerasenes. When Jesus got out of the boat, a man with an impure spirit came from the tombs to meet him. This man lived in the tombs, and no one could bind him anymore, not even with a chain. For he had often been chained hand and foot, but he tore the chains apart and broke the irons on his feet. No one was strong enough to subdue him. Night and day among the tombs and in the hills he would cry out and cut himself with stones» Mk 5:1-5

The Decapolis (Fig.25. 3BC i Fig.6. 5-6 CDE), a group of ten cities on the eastern frontier of the Roman Empire, was a significant cultural and economic hub during the time of Jesus. Within this region, Kursi (Fig.6. 5B)—located on the eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee—emerges as a site of substantial archaeological and religious significance. Recent excavations at Kursi have provided important insights into the historical context of certain New Testament narratives, particularly one involving the healing of demon-possessed individuals by Jesus.

Fig.49. Excavated Byzantine Church in Kursi 

Near the modern-day town of Umm Qais, identified with the ancient city of Gadara (Fig.6. 5C), a remarkable discovery has been made: a series of Roman-era tombs carved from solid rock, complete with doors and resembling what could be described as "prison cells." The Gospel accounts in Matthew, Mark, and Luke describe a dramatic encounter between Jesus and demon-possessed men in the region of the Gerasenes, often linked to ancient Gadara (Matthew 8:28-34; Mark 5:1-20; Luke 8:26-39). These recent archaeological findings lend tangible support to these biblical narratives. Professor Titus Kennedy, an expert in the field, has emphasized the connection between these physical ruins and the scriptural accounts (Kennedy, 2022).

Fig.50. The Roman Era tomb doors from region of Gadara  from Archeological Museum in Umm Qais, Jordan

Within these tombs, archaeologists uncovered chains fastened to pillars—artifacts that align with the Gospel descriptions of demon-possessed men who were so strong that they broke their chains and lived among the tombs. In the context of Christ's time, these chains were used to restrain prisoners or, as described in the Gospels, those believed to be possessed by demons. The physical evidence discovered in these tombs echoes the biblical accounts of the superhuman strength attributed to the possessed (Luke 8:29). 

Chapter 7 Archaeology Confirming the History of Pontius Pilate

The recent archaeological findings, including the discovery of a rock inscription bearing Pontius Pilate's name at the site of the ancient Roman theatre in Caesarea and a ring believed to have been used as a stamp by Pilate's administration, serve as tangible evidence that corroborates the historicity of one of the Gospels' most pivotal figures, thereby providing a fascinating synthesis of material culture with biblical narratives.

Fig.51. A Coin Of Ponti Pilate - governor of Judea. Obverse: the Lituus and TIBERIUS EMPEROR. Reverse: the laurel wreath. Year 30 AD.

Fig.52. A Coin Of Ponti Pilate - governor of Judea. Obverse: the Lituus and TIBERIUS EMPEROR. Reverse: the laurel wreath. Year 31 AD.

7.1 Pilate's Rock Inscription

«They delivered him to Pontius Pilate the governor» Mt 27:2

The long-standing quest to link the biblical narrative with historical artifacts marked a significant breakthrough with the discovery of the Pilate Stone Inscription. In 1961, an excavation led by Italian archaeologist Dr. Maria Fortuna Canivet uncovered a weathered limestone block in the ancient theatre of Caesarea Maritima (Fig.6. 2C) (Vardaman, 1962). After centuries of obscurity, the stone's Latin dedicatory inscription revealed crucial details, connecting the previously elusive figure of Pontius Pilate, the Roman Prefect of Judea, to a concrete archaeological context. Though fragmented and measuring 82 cm by 65 cm, the stone is of great importance, as it bears Pilate’s name and confirms his official role in governing Judea.

Fig.53. The Pontius Pilate Stone from Caesarea

The inscription says: S TIBERIÉUM

[...PONTI]US PILATUS

[...PRAEF]ECTUS IUDA[EA]E

The preserved wording on the stone clearly refers to Pilate's act of dedication, reflecting the Roman prefect's (or governor's) customary contributions to urban development and public works, affirming his administrative presence in Judea. This inscription corroborates historical records outside of the Gospel accounts, grounding the historical figure of Pilate in the same period as Jesus. Writing in the second century AD, the historian Tacitus referred to Pilate as a “procurator of Judea,” but both the rock inscription and the Gospels maintain the historically accurate title. The term "procurator of Judea" was only introduced during the reign of Emperor Claudius (41-54 AD) (Vardaman, 1962).

7.2 The Ring of Authority: Pilate's Seal

«But the father said to his servants, Bring forth the best robe, and put it on him; and put a ring on his hand, and shoes on his feet» Lk 15:22

A particularly fascinating artifact that underscores the historical existence of Pontius Pilate is a copper ring discovered at Herodium (Fig.23. 2D), the fortress constructed by King Herod. Initially, its significance was not apparent when it was unearthed in 1969. It was only in 2018, through modern cleaning techniques and advanced photography, that the true value of this ring became evident. The Greek inscription "PILATO," visible after the ring was stamped, confirmed its association with Pontius Pilate's governance—suggesting it was a tool used by an official or administrator under his command (Amorai-Stark, 2018). This small but meaningful object affirms the operational presence of Pilate's administrative apparatus and links to the New Testament’s portrayal of his authority in Judea.

Fig.47. The ring stamping the name "'PILATO"

The discovery of Pilate's ring is more than a mere addition to the roster of archaeological finds; it serves as a connection to the biblical narrative concerning status and power dynamics of that time. In the ancient world, rings symbolized authority and allowed the bearer to act on behalf of the ring’s owner. This is reflected in the biblical parable of the prodigal son, where the father, showing compassion, reinstates his son's status and grants him authority over his estate by placing a ring on his finger (Luke 15:22). The Herodium ring might have fulfilled a similar role, granting its bearer the authority of Pilate's office in everyday administrative matters. Such artifacts enrich our understanding of the cultural and societal structures of Jesus' time, as depicted in the Gospels.

Fig.55. Herodium today, 7.5 miles south of Jerusalem 

Chapter 8 Cross-Examining the Tomb of Jesus in the Church of Holy Sepulchre

«At the place where Jesus was crucified, there was a garden, and in the garden a new tomb, in which no one had ever been laid» Jn 19:41

The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, established in the fourth century, stands as one of the most significant historical and religious structures, housing what is believed to be Jesus' tomb (Fig.26. 3C). Emperor Constantine the Great initiated its construction to dismantle the pagan temples of Jupiter and Venus built by Hadrian (in fact Hadrian through his pagan temples marked the true place of Jesus' grave) and to restore the sacred Christian narrative. Consecrated in 335 AD, it represents a remarkable intersection of divinity and archaeology (Moropoulou et al., 2019, 2022).

Each year, millions of pilgrims visit the Church, drawn to the Edicule, the shrine that contains Jesus' tomb. However, it was the meticulous work in 2016 by professors and archaeologists from the National Technical University of Athens, led by Professor Antonia Moropoulou, that revealed new insights into the site (Moropoulou et al., 2019). Beneath a marble slab believed to protect the sanctity of the tomb, researchers uncovered an additional plate adorned with a cross from the Crusader period. Removing this plate allowed both the scientific and religious communities to examine the underlying limestone burial bench (6.6 ft. x 2.6 ft., 2 ft. from the ground) (Moropoulou et al., 2022).

Fig.56. The Edicule of Church of Holy Sepulchre

This investigation not only shed light on the site's physical layers but also reinforced long-held historical claims of Christian tradition. Fredrik Hiebert of National Geographic expressed astonishment, saying, “My knees were shaking; I did not expect this! The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is alive. It is a living monument!”

Furthermore, the workers were initially struck by a “sweet aroma” that emerged as they opened the tomb. Additionally, they reported that the measuring instruments used by scientists were affected by electromagnetic disturbances. When placed vertically on the stone where Christ’s body rested and was resurrected, the devices either malfunctioned or ceased functioning altogether. This included both specialized equipment and computers. One possible explanation for this anomaly is powerful electromagnetic (or other ?) radiation (Dorient, 2016).

Chapter 9 Ossuaries -Voices from the Tombs

The Hebraic practice of secondary burial using limestone ossuaries, prevalent from around 20 BC to 70 AD, particularly in Jerusalem, was far more than a routine tradition—it represented a profound connection between the living and their deceased ancestors. These ossuaries, uncovered through meticulous archaeological efforts in and around Jerusalem, bear the names and lineages of individuals, preserving familial heritage from over two millennia ago. Limestone, chosen for its durability, became the preferred material for these bone repositories (Kloner & Zissu, 2002). The burial process began with the body being laid to rest in a communal grave-cave, allowing natural decomposition to occur. After approximately a year, the bones were gathered and placed in the ossuary, which was then stored in familial tombs known as loculi. These ossuaries, with their carefully inscribed names and sometimes occupations, act as genealogical records etched in stone, offering a window into the lives and social status of the departed.

Fig.57. A model of a Jewish tomb with the body wrapped in burial cloths and the ossuaries containing bones after a secondary burial

In 2000, a burial cave dating back to 1 AD was unearthed in the Hinnom Valley near Jerusalem by Prof. James Tabor and Prof. Shimon Gibson. The tomb contained ossuaries and a corpse shelf, which had been sealed with stone. Remarkably, skeletal remains were still present on this shelf, alongside remnants of burial textiles. Prof. Shimon Gibson noted the uniqueness of this discovery in the Jerusalem area, as the city’s high humidity levels typically prevent the preservation of organic material. The burial cloth, composed of separate wrappings for the body and head, aligned with burial customs of the time. DNA analysis of the skeleton revealed traces of Mycobacterium leprae, confirming the deceased had suffered from leprosy, making it the earliest known case of leprosy detected in the region of Israel (Matheson et al., 2009). This finding is significant, particularly when considering Gospel accounts:

«While Jesus was in one of the towns, a man came along who was covered with leprosy. When he saw Jesus, he fell with his face to the ground» Lk 5:12

«As he was going into a village, ten men who had leprosy met him. They stood at a distance and called out in a loud voice» Lk 17:12-13

Indeed, both passages come from the Gospel of Luke, who was a Greek physician (Col.4:14) and was able to diagnose and describe those afflicted with leprosy.

Returning to our discussion, the inscriptions on these ossuaries, though often limited to a simple name, provide scholars with critical information, linking the deceased to specific periods and, at times, events described in the Gospels. Titles such as "temple builder" or "high priest" offer intriguing clues about the individual's role within the societal structure of first-century CE Jerusalem. These inscriptions, carefully carved into the ossuaries, underscore the social hierarchies that shaped both religious and civic life in the ancient city (Rahmani, 1994). In addition, the decorative motifs found on many ossuaries, such as six-petal rosettes and floral patterns, reflect the aesthetic preferences of the time and possibly indicate the wealth or pride of the families involved, adding further context to the funerary practices of the era. The efforts of Israeli institutions in safeguarding these artifacts are commendable; the publication of Rahmani's Catalogue of Jewish Ossuaries in 1994 stands as a vital record of this cultural heritage, ensuring that these voices from the past continue to be heard in the present day.

Fig.58. The burial cave with ossuaries and loci

9.1 The New Translation of the James Ossuary Inscription and Jesus' Family Tree 

Lot son of Haran, Abram's brother (אחוי ד) Gen 14:12

James son of Josef, Jesus' brother (אחוי ד)

In 2002, Professor André Lemaire, from the Department of Hebrew and Aramaic Philology and Epigraphy at the Sorbonne University, visited Mr. Oded Golan in Tel Aviv. Mr. Golan, an engineer, owned one of the largest private collections of biblical archaeology. Among these artifacts was a limestone ossuary, with an inscription in ancient Aramaic, which Prof. Lemaire translated as "James, son of Joseph, brother of Jesus." Only two ossuaries have been found that list three names: the deceased, the father, and the brother. Mr. Golan purchased the ossuary in East Jerusalem from an antiquities dealer when he was a teenager. Not knowing ancient Aramaic, he was unable to read it himself (Lemaire, 2002; Shanks, 2003).

Professor Camille Fuchs, head of the Department of Statistics at Tel Aviv University, conducted a statistical analysis to estimate how many people could have been named James, had a father named Joseph, and a brother named Jesus during the ossuary period. Considering Jerusalem's population between 20 BC and 70 AD (around 80,000 people, with 40,000 males), literacy rates of about 20%, birth and death rates, family size, and wealth (about 50% of the population could afford an ossuary), as well as the popularity of names (based on Rachel Hachlili’s studies: about 14% were named Joseph, 9% named Jesus, and 2% named James), Fuchs estimated that only 1.7 men could have had this combination of names with 95% probability.

Fig.59. The James ossuary with an Aramaic inscription

When only two names appear on an ossuary (e.g., "X son of Y"), about 1,000 men could fit the profile. However, the inclusion of a brother's name suggests the brother was a significant figure, possibly Jesus the Nazarene. If so, this could be - as the BBC reported - the earliest non-biblical artifact connected to Jesus' existence (Fuchs, 2003; Hachlili, 1984).

Fig.60. Inscription of James Ossuary before air transport to Royal Ontario Museum (ROM) in Toronto

In 2002, around 100,000 people visited the James ossuary at the Royal Ontario Museum (ROM) in Toronto. Unfortunately, the ossuary was damaged during air transport. Dr. Ewa Dziadowiec, an expert in stone restoration, repaired it with polyvinyl acetate. At ROM, the ossuary was examined under long-wave UV light, revealing uniform fluorescence across the entire surface, including the inscription. These findings eliminated the possibility of modern forgery using new chalk, which would fluoresce differently under UV light (Shanks, 2003).

Despite these findings, in 2003 the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) claimed the second part of the inscription ("brother of Jesus") had been added or altered in modern times and covered with chalk mixed with hot water. Mr. Golan, denying the accusations, was convicted of forgery by the IAA and the State of Israel and was imprisoned. This verdict shocked the academic community (Lemaire, 2003). After five years of legal proceedings (2007–2012), the Jerusalem District Court, under Judge Aharon Farkash, acquitted Golan, giving him a "NOT GUILTY" verdict. The court consulted Prof. Wolfgang Krumbein, a leading expert in biopatina, who demonstrated that the entire ossuary was covered with biopatina caused by black fungus (Krumbein, 2003).

Fig.61. Inscription of James Ossuary after a red silicone cast of the letters made by the Israeli police Mazap.

While Golan was imprisoned in 2004, the IAA transferred the ossuary to the Israeli police (Mazap), who made a red silicone cast of the inscription. This process left a sticky red residue on a large part of the ossuary. This highlights the need for greater collaboration between scientists and legal experts to establish international laws protecting valuable artifacts from careless damage.

The Jerusalem District Court has ordered Mazap to return an ossuary to its owner, Mr Oded Golan.

Fig. 62. The Aramaic Apocryphon of Genesis from Qumran Cave 1, dating from the 1st century BC, unrolled and translated in 1956 by Nohman Avigad and Yigael Yadin.

Catholic priest and scholar, Professor Joseph A. Fitzmyer (1920–2016) from the Catholic University of America, an expert in Aramaic and Hebrew who studied the Dead Sea Scrolls, explained that the word for “brother” in Aramaic is "ach." He pointed out that the word "achui" also appears in the Aramaic texts from Qumran Cave 1, specifically in the Apocryphon of Genesis (QapGen 21.34–22.1) (Fitzmyer, 2002). The first cave in Qumran near the Dead Sea was accidentally discovered by Bedouin shepherds in 1946 and the scrolls were finally unrolled and translated from Aramaic to English (by Nahman Avigad and Yigael Yadin) 10 years later in 1956, in Israel. The first scroll contains the Book of Lamech, the Book of Noah, and the Story of Abraham (columns 19–22), that is very similar to those in chapters 12–15 of the Bible, Book of Genesis (written in Hebrew). It was named the Genesis Apocryphon (1QapGen) because the story is similar but not exactly the same. Briefly, it is the well known story of Abram, who travels with his wife, Sara, and his brother’s son, Lot, to Kannan, and they must escape to Egypt. Because Sara is very beautiful and wise, they tell the Pharaoh that she is Abram’s sister, to save Abram’s life. The phrase we are interested in - from  QapGen  21:34 - 22:1 corresponds to Genesis 14:12 (translated from Hebrew) and means that Lot, son of Abram’s brother (Machiela, 2009).

Moreover, the form “achui d” is found in Genesis 14:12 in the Aramaic translations of the Hebrew Bible known as the Targums—Targum Neofiti (1st–2nd century) and Targum Jerusalem (4th century). According to Professor Edward Cook from the Catholic University of America, both forms, "di" and "d", mean "of", with "di" being the older form, popular in the 1st century BC, and "d" becoming more common over time (Cook, 2003).

Fig. 54. Fig.64. The table showing the translation of the ossuary inscription from known Aramaic texts from Book of Genesis found  in Qumran and Targums. The drawing of the inscription by Prof. Shimon Gibson.

Based on this evidence, my hypothesis is that the ossuary inscription should be translated as: James, son of Jesus' brother Joseph i.e. James, son of Joseph, the brother of Jesus (Fig.65).

«Is not his mother called Mary? And are not his brothers James and Joseph and Simon and Judas?» Mt13:55

The position of James within Jesus’ family has been debated for many years. I would like to offer a new perspective based on a proposed translation. According to the Gospels of Mark (6:3) and Matthew (13:55), Jesus had four brothers: James, Joseph, Judas, and Simon. In certain Greek versions of these Gospels, the name Joseph appears in a softer form i.e. diminutive form (as today's Jo, Joe, Joey, Josy etc). In Mark, the names are given as Josetos and Jose, while in Matthew, they are Joseph and Joses. In English translations directly from the Greek, these softer forms of Joseph are typically rendered as Joses. Unfortunately, Latin translations (and many versions translated from the Vulgate) consistently use "Joseph." What’s notable is that, regardless of whether Mark 6:3 and Matthew 13:55 use "Joseph" or "Joses," the form remains consistent later when these Gospels describe the women watching from a distance during the Crucifixion. These women had followed Jesus and ministered to Him in Galilee (Mark 15:40, 15:47, and Matthew 27:56). Among them was Mary (in Greek, Maria), the mother of James and Joseph/Joses.

Additionally, the Gospel of John mentions that standing near the cross were Jesus’ mother and her sister, Mary, the wife of Cleopas (John 19:25). According to the historian Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, in his History of the Church (3rd century AD), Cleopas, who was married to Mary, was the brother of Joseph, making Cleopas Jesus’ uncle (III, chapter 32). When James the Just, the first bishop of Jerusalem, was martyred (and buried near the Jerusalem temple, his relics were later transported to Constantinople and ultimately to Rome, where they rest today in the Basilica of the Holy Apostles, thus ruling out the theory that his bones were in the ossuary), the second bishop of Jerusalem was chosen—Simeon, son of Cleopas, a cousin of Jesus, also known as "the brother of Jesus.", the second bishop of Jerusalem was Symeon, the son of Cleopas, a cousin of Jesus, and also referred to as Jesus’ “brother” (IV, chapter 22). Hegesippus, an early Christian writer, also notes that Judas was the son of Mary and Cleopas (III, chapter 32). This suggests that Mary and Cleopas were the parents of James, Joseph/Joses, Simon, and Judas—referred to as Jesus’ brothers.

According to the Gospel of John, there is one more piece of evidence that Jesus, when dying on the cross, left his mother without any other children:

When Jesus therefore saw His mother, and the disciple whom He loved standing by, He said to His mother, “Woman, behold your son!” Then He said to the disciple, “Behold your mother!” And from that hour that disciple took her to his own home J19:26-27

If Mariam, mother of Jesus, had had other children this statement would not have been necessary. Speaking while hanging on a cross is extremely difficult: taking the necessary breath would involve standing up on the nail through the feet and would cause excruciating pain. So Jesus would have spoken only about things of crucial importance.

While the Aramaic word ach and the Greek adelphos can mean more than just “blood brother” or “sibling,” also encompassing “relative” or “kinsman,” in this case, Mary (wife of Cleopas) was the sister (or possibly cousin, as it seems unlikely that parents would give two daughters such similar names) of Mary, the mother of Jesus. Since Cleopas and Joseph were blood brothers, the children of Mary and Cleopas were Jesus’ “double cousins.” First cousins typically share about 12.5% of their DNA, while double cousins share about 25%—twice as much as first cousins. Thus, the term “double cousin” is applicable.

Based on this understanding, it is possible to trace the genealogy of James, the son of Joseph and nephew of Jesus, whose bones were placed in the ossuary. 

Fig.65. Hypothetical family tree of James son of Joseph who was the double cousin i.e. "brother of Jesus"

9.2 Caiaphas' Burial Legacy: Ossuaries of a High Priest's Family

«Then one of them, named Caiaphas, who was high priest that year» Jn 11:49

The discovery of ossuaries tied to the family of Caiaphas, the High Priest, serves as a pivotal piece in the historical puzzle of early first century Judea. In 2011, the discovery of an ossuary in the Valley of Elah significantly enhanced our understanding. The inscription on this ossuary - 

"Miriam daughter of Yeshua son of Caiapha, priest of Ma'azya from Beit Imri" - 

provided an explicit link to one of the most notable figures of the New Testament. The Israeli Antiquities Authority's authentication of this find practically thrusts us back into the tumultuous times of early Christianity.

Fig.66. The Ossuary of Miriam granddaughter of Caiapha, High Priest. Rockefeller Museum in Jerusalem.

According to 1Chr 24:1-18 the lots were drawn to designate the order of Temple service for the different priestly orders among 24 grandsons of Aaron (Moses’ brother). The 8th lot was drowned for Abijah, where the priest Zechariah- father of John the Baptist - came from (Lk1:5) and the 24th lot was drowned for Maazya, where the priest Caiapha had his division. Beit Imri is probable a modern Beit Ummar north from Hebron (Fig.6. 3F lub Fig.25. 2D).

The existence of Caiaphas is further corroborated by another ossuary found in 1990 in South Jerusalem. Ornately decorated, it bore the inscription 

"Joseph, son of Caiaphas"

and contained the bones of multiple individuals, suggesting a family tomb. This particular find, coupled with a coin minted by Herod Agrippa (37-44 AD) found in a neighbouring ossuary, provides not only a touchstone for dating these artefacts but also adds a layer of personalization to the historical figure of Caiaphas. Such discoveries weave together the fabric of history, confirming the interconnectedness of families, politics, and religion in ancient Jerusalem (Kloner & Zissu, 2003).

Fig.67. The Ossuary of Joseph son of Caiaphas. Israel Musem in Jerusalem.

9.3 The Ossuary of Alexander son of Simon the Cyrenian

«A certain man from Cyrene, Simon, the father of Alexander and Rufus, was passing by on his way in from the country, and they forced him to carry the cross» Mk 15:21

In 1941, a significant discovery in the Kidron Valley provided new insights into the connection between the Jewish diaspora in Cyrene (Fig.69. 2D) and Jerusalem (Fig.69. 5D). Archaeologists E.L. Sukenik and N. Avigad uncovered a burial cave containing ossuaries dating to before 70 AD, associated with Cyrenian Jews. Among these, one ossuary stood out, bearing the inscriptions:

"Alexander son of Simon"  and  "Alexander Cyrenian" 

Fig.68. The Ossuary of Alexander, son of Simon, Alexander Cyrenian

This ossuary is notable not only for its historical value but also for the intriguing possibility that it may be linked to the Biblical Simon of Cyrene and his son Alexander (Avigad 1962). The presence of both Greek and Hebrew inscriptions offers scholars a unique opportunity to explore the multicultural and multilingual dynamics of ancient Jerusalem (Evans 2003). Moreover, recent archaeological discoveries of Gabbatha, close to Herod's Palace on the western wall of Jerusalem (chapter 4.4), suggest a new understanding of Simon "was passing by on his way in from the country" as Gabbatha lies at the city's edge, leading to the open fields surrounding Jerusalem (Fig.26. 1-2D).

It should be added here that the vertical poles for crucifying convicts by the Romans were permanently fixed in the ground, and those condemned to crucifixion carried the crossbeam, called the patibulum, which weighed 32-36 kg. It was in carrying the patibulum that Simon of Cyrene helped Jesus.

The discovery of this ossuary bridges the worlds of biblical history and archaeology, inviting a multidisciplinary investigation into its origins and significance. Experts in ancient Jewish civilization, linguistics, and history could collaborate, using modern technology and computer analysis, to determine whether this ossuary could belong to the Alexander mentioned in the Gospels (as it was done for James ossuary, chapter 9.1). Such efforts would highlight the importance of integrating scientific methods into historical research, while also offering fresh perspectives on biblical narratives and ancient texts.

Chapter 10 Shrouds of Faith

This chapter unfolds the mysteries enveloping two profound artifacts: the Shroud of Turin and the Shroud of Manoppello. These relics, shrouded in both reverence and intrigue, stand as silent witnesses to the resurrection, challenging the boundaries of our understanding.

Fig.70. Map of Italy, Europe

Fig.71. Chapel of the Holy Shroud, Turin, Italy

10.1 Shrouds of Turin and Manoppello: Analyzing the Evidence

«Simon Peter therefore also came and entered the tomb; and he saw the linen wrappings lying there, and the face-cloth, which had been on His head, not lying with the linen wrappings, but rolled up in a place by itself » Jn 20:6-7

The Shroud of Turin (Fig.72), perhaps the most enigmatic and debated relic within Christian heritage, resides in the Cathedral of St. John the Baptist in Turin, Italy. This linen cloth, measuring 4.3 meters by 1.1 meters and woven in a three-to-one herringbone twill made of flax fibrils, has captivated scholars, scientists, believers, and skeptics alike. Its origins and authenticity have been the subject of intense scrutiny and research, yet it remains an article of deep spiritual significance for many. The study of the Shroud of Turin took a significant turn in 1898 when Italian photographer Secondo Pia captured the first photograph of the shroud. To the astonishment of many, the black- white negative of Pia's photograph revealed a more distinct and detailed image than the sepia tones visible to the naked eye on the linen itself. This discovery propelled the shroud into a new realm of investigation, highlighting its intricate details and the haunting image of a man, apparently scourged, crowned with thorns, crucified and with a pierced heart.

Fig.72. Shroud of Turin

The linen head wrapping is considered a Sudarium of Oviedo - a bloodstained piece of cloth (measuring 84 x 53 cm) kept in the Cathedral of San Salvador, Oviedo, Spain. The blood stains on both shrouds: Turin and Oviedo, are group AB.

In 1977, the Shroud of Turin Research Project (STURP) assembled over thirty experts from various scientific fields to conduct a detailed examination of the shroud. They concluded that the image was formed not by paint but through some form of oxidation of the linen fibrils, changing its color only on the fibers' surface (Schwalbe & Rogers, 1982). Moreover, the absence of any substances usually associated with painting or drawing techniques from the mediaeval period led to further speculation about the shroud's origins. A new branch of science has been created named Sindonology (www.shroud.com).

Adding to the shroud's mystique, analysis using a VP8 Image Analyzer, performed by Pete Schumacher of Interpretations Systems Incorporated (ISI) in 1972, revealed that the image on the shroud contained three-dimensional information, a property not found in conventional two-dimensional images. This characteristic led to the suggestion that the shroud's image is uniquely lifelike, resembling what one might term a holographic recording, and implying a formation process that remains unexplained by modern science (Heller 1983)

Fig. 73. The black and white negative of Shroud of Turin

Recent studies have sought to determine the shroud's age through more advanced techniques. Dr. Liberato De Caro and his team applied Wide-Angle X-ray Scattering (WAXS) to measure the rate of cellulose fibrils' degradation to date the linen. This method compared the shroud's fibre degradation level against that of other known-age textiles, suggesting an origin between 55–74 AD (De Caro et al., 2023). This finding adds weight to the argument that the shroud could indeed be contemporaneous with the historical period of Jesus of Nazareth. The readers who would like to discuss the controversial Carbon-14 test results from 1988, I refer to the book of Dr Kenneth E. Stevenson from 2022.

Moreover, research into the written inscriptions on the Shroud of Turin has provided further avenues for investigation. Dr. Barbara Frale's examination revealed faint but discernible words in Greek, Latin, and Aramaic. These inscriptions seem to correlate with administrative procedures of Roman execution, potentially offering a historical context that aligns with the biblical accounts of Jesus' crucifixion (Frale, 2009).

Fig.74. The writings on Shroud of Turin found by Barbara Frale with her translations. My hypothesis is on the letter Theta, because then the date of Jesus Christ crucifixion is the 19th year of Cesar Tiberius reign i.e. 14+19 = 33AD

Additionally Prof. Petrus Soons was able to read from 3D images of the shroud, the Aramaic word “LAMB” localized just under the beard.

According to Giuseppe Maria Catalano many pictures of the shroud show a phenomenon known as Stroboscopic Photography (Catalano 2018). This paper also shows that Jesus wore phylacteries on His  hand and above His forehead—leather boxes containing passages from the Old Testament, attached to the body with long leather straps.

Intriguingly, recent investigations have drawn a remarkable parallel between the Shroud of Turin and the lesser-known Shroud of Manoppello kept in Santuario del Volto Santo Church in Manoppello, Italy (Fig.75 and 78). This lesser artifact, bearing the delicate image of a face thought to depict Jesus Christ, shares astonishing similarities with the Turin Shroud. The discovery, credited to the observant eyes of Sr. Blandina Paschalis Schloemer, a Trappist nun and icon painter, merits a closer examination (Badde, 2018).

Fig.75. The interior of the Church of the Holy Face in Manoppello, Italy. The Manoppello Shroud, made of byssus, is placed in the central frame – it is transparent to light and can be viewed from both sides.

Scientific analyses have underscored the striking congruence between the two faces. Researchers note identical facial structures, wound marks, and bloodstain patterns, presenting a compelling case for their interconnectedness (De Caro, et al 2019). Furthermore, the Shroud of Manoppello is crafted from byssus, also known as sea silk, a material renowned for its rarity and value. The unique transparency of this fabric allows the haunting visage to be visible from both sides (Fig.75). Remarkably, the image on the Manoppello Shroud could not be painted because the byssus fibers are not able to accept any paint. However, the byssus fibers contain natural pigment - pheomelanin. Laboratory studies showed that changes in pH modify pheomelanin to different shades of brown, white or even red color (Jaworski 2010). 

What is the most intriguing when we look at the Shroud of Manoppello is that the image looks a little bit different from the front and from the reverse: the teeth are visible or not, and there is a slight difference in the eyes that are OPEN. It looks like it is a movement recorded in this incredible image.

Fig.76. The Face from Shroud of Manoppello photographed from the front and from the reversed site. Notice the difference in the lips and eyes positions.

Fig.77. Superposition of two Shrouds: Manoppello and Turin by sister Blandina Schloemer.

Some researchers posit that both shrouds were indeed present at the moment of Christ's resurrection, capturing miraculous imprints beyond the realm of human artistry.

As these investigations continue, the Shrouds of Turin and Manoppello invite us to ponder the intersection of faith, art, and science. They challenge us to consider the possibilities of divine intervention and the physical evidence of biblical events. While questions remain and debates persist, the shrouds serve as a tangible connection to the profound mysteries of the Christian faith, offering a unique lens through which to explore the resurrection story.

Fig.78. Church of Holy Face in Manoppello, Italy

Chapter 11: The Dawn of Christianity

Even the oldest inhabitants of Mount Zion in Jerusalem call this place the first Christian church. This ancient worship site in Jerusalem, thought to be the oldest Christian church yet discovered, substantiates references within the Gospels to early Christian gatherings. Unfortunately, this place is almost unknown. That is why I present a Globe Earth map with localization parameters.

Additionally, archaeological undertakings in Megiddo unearthed the early Christian mosaic suggesting a dynamic faith in Jesus Christ. These findings illuminate the physical settings of early Christian worship in Palestine.

Fig.79. Mosaic floor of possibly the oldest Christian Church in the Holy Land in Megiddo

11.1 Unveiling the First Christian Church in Jerusalem

«There they found gathered together the eleven and those who were with them» Lk 24:33

This location, deeply embedded in Christian tradition, is linked to significant events such as the Last Supper and the descent of the Holy Spirit at Pentecost. The archaeological remains suggest the presence of what might be the earliest Christian church in Jerusalem, dating back to the 1st century.

Among the ruins, there are traces of a first-century ritual bath, or mikveh, a key detail that sheds light on the early Christian community’s practices, showing how they were rooted in Jewish traditions. As Christianity began to distinguish itself, this site was transformed into a chapel, marking a shift in its religious significance.

Sadly, the importance of this site is largely unrecognized, with limited access and its details known only to a select few. The entrance to the ancient grotto is covered by a heavy wire mesh, a symbol of the neglect it has faced, yet the mysteries it holds continue to captivate the small number of people aware of its existence. The difficulty of accessing this site reflects the broader challenges in uncovering early Christian history (Fig.26. 3E and fig.82).

Fig.80. The First Christian Church in Jerusalem

In a fascinating development in 1990, Ludwig Schneider was given around 40 artifacts by an elderly monk named Tech Otecus, who claimed to have unearthed them from a nearby grotto. These artifacts featured a distinctive symbol combining a menorah atop a fish, intersected by the Star of David.

Fig.81. The triangular base of the Menorah and the triangular tail of the fish combine to form the six-pointed Star of David.

This symbol represents the merging of Jewish and Christian identities and highlights the early Christian community’s use of ἸΧΘΥΣ, the Greek word for fish, as an acronym for Jesus:

Ἰησοῦς Χρῑστός Θεοῦ Υἱός Σωτήρ" translated : 'Jesus Christ, God's Son, Savior'.

Although not widely recognized, this discovery provides compelling evidence of the site's early Christian significance, highlighting the complex relationship between early Christianity and its Jewish roots. This area offers great potential for further study and excavation. However, the site remains under the care of the Greek Orthodox Church, and its restricted access poses a challenge to continued archaeological investigation.

Fig.82. The Globe Earth map with marked localization of the First Christian Church and the Last Supper Room. The measured distance is 122 meters.

Localization of the First Christian Church from Globe Earth: 31°46'15"N 35°13'43"E

11.2 Archaeology of Megiddo and the Rise of Christian Faith

«Jesus answered: I and the Father are one» Jn 10:30

The intersection of archaeology and the early stages of Christianity has always captivated scholars, offering concrete links to the spiritual dimensions of faith. A key milestone in this ongoing exploration occurred in 2005 when Israeli archaeologist Yotam Tepper and his team from Tel-Aviv University made a remarkable discovery during a salvage excavation connected to the expansion of an Israeli prison. They unearthed what is now believed to be the earliest known Christian prayer hall, located in the Roman-era village of Megiddo, just 25 kilometers south of Nazareth in Galilee (Fig.6. 4C) (Tepper, 2006).

This discovery not only stirs the imagination but serves as crucial evidence supporting the Gospels, shedding light on the early Christian veneration of Jesus as divine. Dating back to AD 230, this archaeological find predates all others of its kind and contains the first-known material evidence of early Christian belief in Jesus’s divinity.

One of the most remarkable elements of the site is the discovery of three mosaics, with one drawing particular attention. The inscription on the mosaic reads:

"The God-loving Akeptous has offered the table for God Jesus Christ as a memorial" 

Fig.83. The floor mosaic mentioning the God Jesus Christ from AD 230 , Megiddo

Fig.84. The Translation of the Sacred Names in the Greek Inscription from AD 230.

Next to this inscription, archaeologists found a circular feature believed to be a remnant of a Christian altar, possibly the base of an altar leg. This mosaic is significant not only for its age but for its explicit reference to Jesus Christ, evident through the use of three Nomina Sacra (Sacred Names with the line OVER-lined- fig.84) in the Greek text. The use of these sacred names highlights the reverence early Christians had for Jesus, reflecting practices commonly seen in early Christian Greek writings.

This archaeological discovery not only affirms aspects of the Gospels but deepens our understanding of early Christian communities, their rituals, and the development of their faith. It also exemplifies how archaeology can bridge historical knowledge with modern faith, offering evidence that supports both scholarly inquiry and religious belief.

The significance of the Megiddo excavation goes beyond academic interest, representing a profound convergence of faith, history, and science. It encourages a fresh examination of early Christian traditions and provides a tangible link to the past that continues to shape the future of biblical studies and the faith of billions worldwide.

The mosaic has since been removed from the site and is being transferred to the Museum of the Bible in Washington, USA, where it will be featured in a special exhibition. The grand opening of the Megiddo Exhibition started on September 15, 2024.